Dr. Jeff Masters' WunderBlog

Space Weather storms
Posted by: Dr. Jeff Masters, Saat: 04:40 PM GMT Tarih: 31 Mart 2009 +3
Twenty years ago this month, on March 13, 1989, I was aboard NOAA's P-3 weather research aircraft, bumping through a turbulent portion of a fierce winter storm in a remote ocean area between Greenland and Norway. We were searching for clues on how to make better weather forecasts for the regions of Norway and the northern British Isles battered by these great storms. Our 2-month project, based in Bødø, Norway, was called the Coordinated Eastern Arctic Research Experiment (CEAREX) . Today's flight took us through the heart of an extratropical storm developing at the edge of the sea ice that covered the ocean waters east of Greenland.

As I looked over at the white-capped, forbidding waters of the Greenland Sea, I reflected today's flight was not particularly dangerous by Hurricane Hunter standards, though the storm's tropical storm-force winds made the ride a bit rough at times. However, we were a long way from civilization. Should an emergency require us to ditch the aircraft in the ocean or the nearby remote island of Jan Mayen, we'd be tough to find unless we were able to radio back our position before going down. Far from any land areas, our communication life-line to the outside world was HF radio (ham radio), which relied on Earth's ionosphere to bounce signals off of. Three hours into the flight this life-line abruptly stopped working.


Figure 1. Sea ice swirls in ocean eddies off the coast of Labrador, Canada, in this photo I took during a 1989 CEAREX flight.

"Jeff, can you come up to the cockpit?" Aircraft Commander Dan Eilers' voice crackled over the intercom. I took a break from monitoring our weather instruments, took off my headset, and stepped forward into the cockpit of the P-3.

"What's up, Dan?" I asked.

"Well, HF radio reception crapped out about twenty minutes ago, and I want to climb to 25,000 feet and see if we can raise Reykjavik Air Traffic Control to report our position. We're flying at low altitude in hazardous conditions over 500 miles from the nearest airport, and it's not good that we're out of communication with the outside world. If we were to go down, search and rescue would have no idea where to look for us."

I agreed to work out an alteration to the flight plan with our scientists, so that we could continue to collect good data on the storm while we climbed higher. The scientists weren't too happy with the plan, since they were paying $20,000 for this flight, and wanted to stay low at 1,500 feet to better investigate the storm's structure. Regardless, we climbed as high as we could and orbited the storm, issuing repeated calls to the outside world over our HF radio. No one answered.

"I've never seen such a major interruption to HF radio!" Commander Eilers said, worriedly. "We can go back down to 1,500 feet and resume the mission, but I want to periodically climb to 25,000 feet and continue trying to establish communications. If we can't raise Air Traffic Control, we should consider aborting the mission".

I agreed to work with the scientists to accommodate this strategy. They argued hotly against a possible cancellation of this mission, which was collecting some unique data on a significant winter storm. So, for the next four hours, we periodically climbed to 25,000 feet, issuing futile calls over our HF radio. Finally, after an uncomfortable eight hours, it was time to go home to our base in Norway. As twilight sank into Arctic darkness, a spectacular auroral display--shimmering curtains of brilliant green light--lit up sky. It began to dawn on us that the loss of our HF radio reception was probably due to an unusual kind of severe weather--a "Space Weather" storm. An extremely intense geomagnetic storm was hitting the polar regions, triggering our brilliant auroral show and interrupting HF radio communications.

The geomagnetic "Superstorm" of March 13, 1989
As it turned out, the geomagnetic storm of March 13, 1989 was one of the most intense such "Space Weather" events in recorded history. The storm developed as a result of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) from the sun four days previously. The CME event blasted a portion of the Sun's plasma atmosphere into space. When the protons and electrons from the Sun arrived at the Earth, the planet's magnetic field guided the highly energetic particles into the upper atmosphere near the magnetic poles. As a result, the lower levels of the polar ionosphere become very ionized, with severe absorption of HF radio, resulting in my uncomfortable flight over the Greenland Sea with no communications. The geomagnetic storm didn't stop there--the storm's charged particles triggered a strong magnetic impulse that caused a voltage depression in five transmission lines in the Hydro-Quebec power system in Canada. Within 90 seconds, automatic voltage compensation equipment failed, resulting in a generation loss of 9,450 MW. With a load of about 21,350 MW, the system was unable to withstand the generation loss and collapsed. The entire province of Quebec--six million people--was blacked out for approximately nine hours. The geomagnetic storm also triggered the failure of a large step-up transformer at the Salem Nuclear Power Plant in New Jersey, as well as 200 other failures on the North American power system. Auroras were observed as far south as Florida, Texas, and Cuba during this geomagnetic "superstorm".


Figure 2. Red and green colors predominate in this view of the Aurora Australis (Southern Hemisphere aurora) photographed from the Space Shuttle in May 1991 at the peak of the geomagnetic maximum that also brought us the March 13, 1989 geomagnetic "superstorm". The payload bay and tail of the Shuttle can be seen on the left hand side of the picture. Auroras are caused when high-energy electrons pour down from the Earth's magnetosphere and collide with atoms. Red aurora occurs from 200 km to as high as 500 km altitude and is caused by the emission of 6300 Angstrom wavelength light from oxygen atoms. Green aurora occurs from about 100 km to 250 km altitude and is caused by the emission of 5577 Angstrom wavelength light from oxygen atoms. The light is emitted when the atoms return to their original unexcited state. Image credit: NASA.

Solar Maximum is approaching
The sun waxes and wanes in brightness in a well-documented 11-year cycle, when sun spots and their associated Coronal Mass Ejections occur. We just passed through solar minimum--the sun is quiet, with no sun spots. We are headed towards a solar maximum, forecast to occur in 2012. Geomagnetic storms are at their peak during solar maximum, and we'll have to be on the lookout for severe "Space Weather" starting in 2010. I'll talk more about severe "Space Weather" storms in my next post, when I'll discuss the greatest Space Weather storm in recorded history--the famed "Carrington Event" of 1859--and what damages it might wreak were it to happen today. An extraordinary report funded by NASA and issued by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (NAS) in 2008 says that a repeat of the Carrington Event could result in the most costly natural disaster of all time.

Resources
MetaTech Corporation's animation of the March 13, 1989 geomagnetic "superstorm".
spaceweather.com
NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC)

Jeff Masters
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Reader Comments
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251. stillwaiting Saat: 03:36 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting surfmom:
Nice link to space flybys Ossqss - pardon my "ditz" --it seems we do NOT get to see the space station in SRQ - just the ISS or some wreckage?

Loved the orbs!!



actually,we'll have a spectacular view of the ISS coming up between 9:01pm and 9:03pm this friday looking WNW at about 56 degrees,as long as weather permits,and with any luck we'll have a nice clear sky as the front should have passed about 6-8hrs prior,oh yea its magnitude will be a brillant -3.5 which is about as bright as venus has been,I believe....which will be amazing....i'll be at work but,it should be bright enough,I'll still try and take some pics!!!!
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252. Chicklit Saat: 03:42 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
great blog from dr. m.!
i was in melbourne during the tornadic event just north of there today. drove back north through a very strong band of showers.
i too am looking forward to another eventful hurricane season. we are below rain levels here and with today's downpours the trees have immediately responded by bursting forth with leaves.
everyone's happier here when it's wetter...our wildlife thrive in the marshes and canals dotted throughout the landscape.
quite an amazing area here with both the technology of the space coast, complete with merritt island preserve and its multifarious wildlife coexisting alongside satellite tracking stations and high tech space stuff!
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253. Skyepony (Mod) Saat: 04:23 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Ossqss~ Yeah, it's something to have Dr Masters follow with this blog. I did get sidetracked looking at making a solar food dehydrater. Couldn't really find a space weather, weather connection, at all. Though if you watch WV loops enough, occationally it seems like something flys across, the effect like dragging a finger quickly through the normal current, disrupting everything behind it. I could stand to read up on what drives the MJO & perhaps someone has studied what drives it to loop backward occationally. I'm gonna watch for the incident with geomatic events in the future.
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254. TampaSpin Saat: 04:35 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
WOW!
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255. HIEXPRESS Saat: 05:29 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Of course, CG stroke rate, and that wouldn't be in the 100s for a cell, would it? If "The ratio of cloud-to-ground and intra-cloud lightning can vary significantly from storm to storm.", it could.
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257. charlottefl Saat: 09:30 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Look at the temp and dew point, if it's anything like that north of here there's a lot of room for instability.

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259. charlottefl Saat: 10:13 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Just finished my SKYWARN refresher. Figured it was a good time of year to do so...
Member Since: Aralık 18, 2006 Posts: 7 Comments: 2672
261. TropicTraveler Saat: 11:01 AM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting theshepherd:
oops.
Except for the fact that it is exceedingly rare for lightning to strike from cloud to ground. It's the other way around. And most often from cloud to cloud. LOL

In the 70's lived in Kendall near Miami. On a beautiful clear day with little puffy white clouds, daughter, dog and I were in the back yard. From one of the little puffy floaters came a bolt of lightning. It split over our heads, hit the chain link fence beside us, hit the boat antenna next door in neighbor's yard (blew out chunk of his boat) and melted some of the wiring in our house. No warning, no clue of TStorms, nothing at all to make us think there was anything going on. Made a believer of me about lightning. Took us about half a second to get inside but the dog beat us.
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263. weathermanwannabe Saat: 12:06 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Good Morning All....Already warm and a balmy 75 this early AM in the Florida Big Bend region; this does not bode well, once the sun cranks up, for the "second" stronger shortwave predicted to swing through the Northern Gulf later this afternoon/early evening in terms of instability and possible severe weather along the Northern Gulf coast.....Keep your NOAA weather radios handy today along this coast. From the Tallahassee NWS this am:

THE THREAT FOR A SIGNIFICANT SEVERE WEATHER EVENT INCREASES DRASTICALLY DURING THE AFTERNOON AND EVENING HOURS. SPC HAS
OUTLOOKED OUR ENTIRE CWA IN A MODERATE RISK FOR SEVERE WEATHER. POTENT MID/UPPER LEVEL TROUGH WILL TAKE ON AN INCREASINGLY NEGATIVE
TILT AS IT EJECTS ACROSS THE SOUTHERN MS VALLEY THROUGH EARLY EVENING...AND THEN ACROSS THE TN VALLEY TONIGHT. LARGE SCALE ASCENT
WILL INCREASE OVERHEAD AS THIS FEATURE APPROACHES. WARM FRONT IS EXPECTED TO HANG UP JUST NORTH OF THE I-10 CORRIDOR WITH SURFACE
BASED STORMS ALONG AND TO ITS SOUTH...AND A MORE ELEVATED VARIETY FURTHER NORTH. KINEMATIC FIELDS WILL BE VERY FAVORABLE INTO TONIGHT
WITH 55-70KTS OF DEEP LAYER SHEAR. INSTABILITY WILL NOT BE LACKING EITHER...WITH FORECAST SOUNDINGS PRODUCING 1500 J/KG OF SURFACE
BASED CAPE SOUTH OF THE WARM FRONT AND 800-1200 J/KG OF ELEVATED CAPE NORTH OF THE FLORIDA BORDER. LATEST SREF PROBS SHOWING A WIDE SWATH WHERE THE CRAVEN PARAMETER IS REACHING AT LEAST 20000. THIS IS A SIGNIFICANT SIGNAL OF THE SEVERE WEATHER POTENTIAL. ALL SEVERE MODES ARE POSSIBLE INTO TONIGHT...WITH LARGE HAIL...DAMAGING WINDS...AND ISOLATED TORNADOES POSSIBLE. GIVEN THE LOW LEVEL WIND
FIELDS THIS AFTERNOON/EVENING...A FEW STRONG TORNADOES ARE POSSIBLE...ESPECIALLY IN THE VICINITY OF THE QUASI-STATIONARY WARM
FRONT.


Stay Safe...................
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267. surfmom Saat: 12:49 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Post 251 - if you're around I did figure it out LOL -- ISS -- International Space Station -- actually Ossqss clued me in LOL
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268. surfmom Saat: 12:50 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Post 266 - Vort - EEEEEEK!
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269. AstroHurricane001 Saat: 12:57 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Redoubt's eruption sent ash clouds across North America to Europe! As for the next solar maximum, scientists have discovered two large leaks in our magnetic field!Link During a particularly intense solar storm, 130 million North Americans could potentially suffer a blackout.
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271. surfmom Saat: 01:00 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting TropicTraveler:

In the 70's lived in Kendall near Miami. On a beautiful clear day with little puffy white clouds, daughter, dog and I were in the back yard. From one of the little puffy floaters came a bolt of lightning. It split over our heads, hit the chain link fence beside us, hit the boat antenna next door in neighbor's yard (blew out chunk of his boat) and melted some of the wiring in our house. No warning, no clue of TStorms, nothing at all to make us think there was anything going on. Made a believer of me about lightning. Took us about half a second to get inside but the dog beat us.


Similar incident just this past Sunday SWFL/SRQ East of I75 - early morning well b/4 the rain.....Lightening Hit the well pump of my bosses house (No Lightening Protection) and completely fried everything. Over 2 Thousand to repair -- been telling the boss he needs to get some protection - would have been cheaper.

Think it was two years ago our house got hit... the boom and energy was so great it blew me off the chair. The cats went completely static (it was one funny sight poor dears) Their fur was straight out .... thankfully we have rods & surge protection so we didn't get fried -- one TV was never quite right after wards.

I think that's where the saying OUT OF THE BLUE originates -- cause it's a "strike" from out of the blue.
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272. surfmom Saat: 01:02 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting AstroHurricane001:
Redoubt's eruption sent ash clouds across North America to Europe! As for the next solar maximum, scientists have discovered two large leaks in our magnetic field!Link During a particularly intense solar storm, 130 million North Americans could potentially suffer a blackout.

The United Kingdom Urges
Warning of Solar Flares

from Mitch Battros - Earth Changes Media

The British Government was urged today to make contingency plans for a freak solar flare that could 'knock out' the National Grid and create severe water and food shortages.

Labour former minister Graham Stringer said Britain should be prepared for a repeat of the solar storm of 1859, which hit Earth and paralyzed much of the telegraph system. In a Commons motion, Mr Stringer said such an event could now 'knock out the National Grid, which would lead to a loss of water supply, transport and food and therefore create a national emergency'.

FULL ARTICLE: http://earthchangesmedia.com/secure/3247.326/article-9162524530.php


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273. surfmom Saat: 01:04 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
I thought post 272, was a little over-the-top, so I had not posted it before.....maybe not.
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274. surfmom Saat: 01:34 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
SWFL/SRQ Gulfster Report
Surfs up! Building swell in the waist high range and looking pretty weak early this morning. Things will change though as the front inches closer and the winds keep blowing, we'll see an increase in the size as the day comes to a close.One major high tide today around 4:20pm. Severe storms North of the Tampa Bay area could produce a twister so keep an eye on the sky. Surf to continue to build into tomorrow and last into Saturday with more swell on the way next week! Gulf Temp 74

See Ya! I'm getting wet.
Member Since: Temmuz 18, 2007 Posts: 30 Comments: 26538
275. charlottefl Saat: 01:44 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Had a really bad thunderstorm a few years ago, and you could feel the updraft from the storm at my house, as well as hear it. I turned on the TV and saw the warning go from S-Thunderstorm to RED tornado warning, and I was like oh ok we get those a lot... Then the follow ran across.. NWS Weather spotter has indicated a tornado on the ground in Pt Charlotte moving SW @ .... kinda freaked out to be honest, you get kinda complacent with the warnings but seeing that line I knew it was serious. So I took that experience in mind and I took the spotter training online, and took the test, been a spotter for 2 years now. Think I'm gonna take the advanced training this month. Just trying to do my part, and I'm fascinated by weather so why not?

Ended up being an F-2 passed a half mile south of the house
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276. hydrus Saat: 02:00 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
VORTFIX-Good morning,if you can ,give me your prediction for middle tenessee.
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277. Ossqss Saat: 02:00 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting vortfix:
TropicTraveler....That happens quite regularly in south Florida.
There are several reported deaths annually due to lightning hits during periods of clear weather.

Makes it next to impossible to take precautions when there is a clear blue sky and no bad weather around.



Here is some lightning food for thought from NWS. This is to the ground for clarity.
How far can lightning strike?
Almost all lightning will occur within 10 miles of its parent thunderstorm, but it CAN strike much farther than that. Lightning detection equipment has confirmed bolts striking almost 50 miles away, but these are very rare.

Link

Calculator for ya if ya need it>

Link
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278. stillwaiting Saat: 02:02 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting surfmom:
SWFL/SRQ Gulfster Report
Surfs up! Building swell in the waist high range and looking pretty weak early this morning. Things will change though as the front inches closer and the winds keep blowing, we'll see an increase in the size as the day comes to a close.One major high tide today around 4:20pm. Severe storms North of the Tampa Bay area could produce a twister so keep an eye on the sky. Surf to continue to build into tomorrow and last into Saturday with more swell on the way next week! Gulf Temp 74

See Ya! I'm getting wet.



well,well,well.....high tide's at 4:20,thats my favorite time of day,oh yea!!!,I'm finally off today after 9 days straight of working and I feel like I deserve some good fishing,the one strong tide seems like a winner and maybe I'll catch dinner!!!!,hey that rhymes.......the gom looks knee to waist,with nice conditions for you to surf and with the temp hovering around 75 degrees,you should be getting rid of your suit by mid-may...and I can't personally wait til the gom hits 80,may,june and october are my fav. months for swimming,with air temps in the mid-high 80's and the humidity,that water is perfect.....
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279. melwerle Saat: 02:02 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Waiting for the storms to hit here today...radio is already going off with flood warnings...the rain hasn't hit yet though. Just no tornados!
Member Since: Haziran 28, 2006 Posts: 12 Comments: 1837
281. charlottefl Saat: 02:08 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Your best defense against lightning strikes, well 2:


-Looking at local radar

-And knowing what a thunderstorm looks like
from a distance. There are more lightning deaths in FL than any other natural weather occurence
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282. hydrus Saat: 02:11 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
VORTFIX-Thank you,one of the weather men up here said if the quasi-stationary warm front manages its way into tenessee along with the southern jet it could spell trouble for us here
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283. stillwaiting Saat: 02:20 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting hydrus:
VORTFIX-Thank you,one of the weather men up here said if the quasi-stationary warm front manages its way into tenessee along with the southern jet it could spell trouble for us here



IT is all about if the STJS is over your area,if it is with the front moving in,your area could be under the gun for long lived strong tornadic cells,anytime from 3pm-10pm cdt.....
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284. stillwaiting Saat: 02:33 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
looking like it might get down into the low 30's again for north florida(frost watch,freeze watch??),mid-next week time period....amazing there could be crop damage in the SE next week from the cold and crop damage in the SE this week,from the severe weather....gotta love spring!!!,oh yea surfmom and ogss,I wouldn't be suprised if we get down into the low-mid 40's for lows mid next week!!!!!
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285. Portlight Saat: 02:40 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
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286. charlottefl Saat: 02:47 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Lucky me I get to drive to Tampa this afternoon, can you say mobile radar and WU for Iphone lol..
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287. Patrap Saat: 02:49 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
090
fxus64 klix 021313
afdlix


Area forecast discussion
National Weather Service New Orleans la
813 am CDT Thursday Apr 2 2009


Sounding discussion...


The atmosphere has already begun to show US what its capable
of...an hour before launch...at weather forecast office Slidell...there were
sustained winds of 35 miles per hour with wind gusts of up to 47 miles per hour. The
sounding shows that the atmosphere is extremely unstable with a
lifted index value of -10.4. The southerly winds near the surface
continue to bring in warm moist air...precipitable water value is
1.24 inches.The Ricks index is 161 which indicates that there is a
51 percent probability of severe weather and the atmosphere is
capable of producing wind gusts of up 74 miles per hour...hail up to 1.37
inches in diameter and tornadoes of up to F2 intensity.
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288. atmoaggie Saat: 02:51 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Another one, Vort.

I hope this does not impact that same area of one of ours that got it last week. (Who was that in southern MS Miss Nadia?)

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289. MissNadia Saat: 02:52 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
288
Miss Nadia is in Wilmington N.C.
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290. atmoaggie Saat: 02:54 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Dang, 3000 MUCAPE at 7 am CDT at Slidell. God forbid the sun comes out for an hour or so...would get more unstable (and likely will).


(Click for full size in new tab)
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291. charlottefl Saat: 02:55 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Dew Point is upto 74 degrees here.. stay safe up there guys...

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293. atmoaggie Saat: 02:56 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting MissNadia:
288
Miss Nadia is in Wilmington N.C.


Are you sure? LOL.

Oh yeah, that was SouthernLady that had nadoes blow through town.
Member Since: Ağustos 16, 2007 Posts: 6 Comments: 12461
294. captainhunter Saat: 02:56 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Good Morning from Panama City Beach. Training severe thunderstorms, confirmed tornado sighting and widespread flooding here. It looks like it may get worse before it gets better.
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296. stillwaiting Saat: 03:06 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Quoting charlottefl:
Lucky me I get to drive to Tampa this afternoon, can you say mobile radar and WU for Iphone lol..



you should be fine no real wx to speak of in our area,other than that darn humid 20-30mph zepher(surfmom)!!!!the wx should move into the TPA area after midnight,possible isolated severe wx on the other coast and in north fl as well.in the area south of TPA we could experience some isolated severe tomorrow morning-early afternoon,with gusty winds and a moderate chance of heavy rain for a couple hrs and if we are lucky .50-1 inches of aqua!!!
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297. TampaSpin Saat: 03:07 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Good Morning everyone!
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298. charlottefl Saat: 03:07 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Solid Red= Tornado Warnings
Solid Yellow= S-Thunderstorm Warnings

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299. charlottefl Saat: 03:16 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
I'll probably be driving home around midnight or shortly therafter, we'll see what happens. All I know is dew points are high. 1. Warm stable air at the surface, and cold air aloft.
2. Moisture
3. Lift (the only one missing for the moment)

Quoting stillwaiting:



you should be fine no real wx to speak of in our area,other than that darn humid 20-30mph zepher(surfmom)!!!!the wx should move into the TPA area after midnight,possible isolated severe wx on the other coast and in north fl as well.in the area south of TPA we could experience some isolated severe tomorrow morning-early afternoon,with gusty winds and a moderate chance of heavy rain for a couple hrs and if we are lucky .50-1 inches of aqua!!!
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300. charlottefl Saat: 03:23 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
Tampa Radar is down for Maintenance, switch to Melbourne....
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301. Patrap Saat: 03:25 PM GMT Tarih: 02 Nisan 2009    
College of DuPage Meteorology
Severe Weather and Flash Flood Warnings



Note: This page will reload every 2 minutes. Warnings are listed with the most recent first.

GOM IR LOOP
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About JeffMasters
Jeff co-founded the Weather Underground in 1995 while working on his Ph.D. He flew with the NOAA Hurricane Hunters from 1986-1990.

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